Stainless Steel Tubes

Stainless steel tubes are often used in applications that require rigid materials for potable water conveyance. Manufacturers select stainless steel because certain manmade materials have unwanted or unknown exposure effects while stainless steel has many desirable qualities for maintaining clean water. Steel tubes can also be used for structural support in buildings and vehicles. The terms “tube” and “pipe” are generally interchangeable, although technically, “tube” implies heightened engineering qualities. Tubes are generally manufactured based on standardized sizes.

Manufacturing Steel Tubes

There are three main methods of manufacturing tubing that lend their names to tubing classifications.

Seamless. Seamless steel tubes are produced through extrusion. Extruded tubes can be formed in a hot or cold process. Long sections of steel bar are forced through a die that blocks out the intended shape of the tube.

As-welded or electric resistant welded (ERW). This method involves passing a rolled sheet of steel through two weld rollers. The weld rollers have a groove around their circumference, through which the steel roll passes. There is a contact at the roll seam that transmits electricity at a high enough current to weld the seam closed. The resulting weld is very small.

Drawn-over-mandrel (DOM). A mandrel is a small piece of metal inserted into the tube to define a shape. It gives the tube extra support to prevent unwanted wrinkling during drawing. The tube is passed through a die that has a smaller diameter than the current tube size. As the tube is drawn, it shrinks to match the size of the die’s diameter. This process allows for tight tolerances and specifications.

Each of these manufacturing processes allows manufacturers the ability to form varying tube shapes and sizes. Tubes are not always cylindrical, and can be made in triangle, square or other polygonal shapes. Steel tubes destined for certain applications require extra processes as well. Applications involving hydrogen must be factory pre-cleaned or certified as instrument grade due to hydrogen’s reactive characteristics that can cause metal embrittlement or even explosions.

Generally, a steel tube manufacturing process is chosen for its interaction with the type of steel to be used. Certain types of steel react poorly to heat because of carbon content, so they can’t be easily welded. Steel types also play a role in decisions regarding use in volatile applications.

Steel Tube Applications

Steel tubing is used in high numbers in plumbing applications. The reasons are threefold. One, stainless steel is very sturdy, composed of 80-90 percent steel and 10-20 percent chromium. Steel tubing can handle the types of pressures exerted by water upon plumbing structures. Additionally, the surface of stainless steel does not allow for much adherence by particles or bacteria, so purification processes will not pass on unintended detritus. Finally, steel does not contaminate drinking water.

Steel tubes are also used in a wide variety of structural applications, such as industrial and residential construction. Examples include fences, gates, railings, playground and athletic equipment. Steel is often used for construction tubes over other metals like aluminum when extra stress resistance is necessary. Steel tubes can also be used in automotive applications and even as parts of furniture.

Titanium

Titanium, also abbreviated Ti, is noted for its low-density and high strength, and features the highest weight-to-strength ratio of any structural metal. In nature, titanium is a commonly found mineral, occurring in practically all of earth’s rocks and bodies of water. Its most common compound, titanium dioxide, is used in the production of white pigments, while other compounds can be used as chemical catalysts.

For industrial purposes, titanium is frequently alloyed with other metals to enhance its innate properties, with metals such as iron, aluminum and molybdenum comprising common alloy choices for aerospace applications. In its unalloyed form, titanium possesses as much strength as some forms of steel, but is 45 percent lighter. Titanium is also corrosion-resistant, making it a key choice for high-performance applications—medical devices, jet engines, military applications and electronic goods are just a few of the items that benefit from titaniums properties.

History

Titanium was given its name by a German Chemist, M.H. Klaproth, after he successfully separated Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) from Rutile (a mineral commonly found in igneous and metamorphic rocks) in the late 1700s. Future separations occured, but pure Titanium was not separated until 1910, by American chemist M.A. Hunter. Luxembourg native William Kroll later patented a process for producing Titanium in 1938, and major manufacturing of Titanium, Titanium Alloys, and Titanium Dioxide follow soon thereafter.

Titanium Dioxide is the most common form, and is still widely used for pigments and paints, cloth and fabrics.

Pure Titanium is mainly used as an alloy with other metals, as it provides an extremely high melting point and is very lightweight, and resistant to corrosion. These uses make it perfect for the aerospace, the marine, and medical industries.

Physical and Chemical Properties

Physically, titanium features strength, low-density and is ductile. Additionally, it features low electrical and thermal conductivity. It is 60 percent more dense than aluminum but twice as strong, and is able to retain its strength at high temperatures because of its extremely high melting point: around 1,650 degrees Celsius (C). Although titanium is hard, it is not as hard as some grades of steel, especially those that have been heat-treated.

Chemically, the most notable characteristic of titanium is its corrosion resistance—titanium can resist hydrochloric acid, chlorine and most organic acids, but is soluble when exposed to highly concentrated acids. In pure nitrogen gas, titanium burns. When exposed to water and air, titanium produces an oxide coating that further inhibits reaction. However, at higher temperatures, titanium is quick to react with air or oxygen (1,200 degrees C for air, 1,130 degrees C for pure oxygen).

Useful Titanium Resources:

International Titanium Association

Los Alamos National Laboratory Titanium Page

United States Geological Survey Titanium Information

Encyclopedia of Earth Titanium Resources

Mineral Information Institute: Titanium

Pigments through the Ages: Titanium Dioxide

Invent.org - Titanium Inventor William Kroll

Metal Chemistry Guide

Any chemical element that is an effective conductor of electricity and heat can be defined as a metal. A metal is also good at forming bonds and cations with non-metals. Atoms inside of a metal quickly lose electrons in order to make positive ions or cations. The ions in turn are surrounded by the electrons that are delocalized, which give the metal its electric conductivity.

Alkali Metals

Alkali metals are a group of metals that you can find on the periodic table, known as the Group 1 elements. Members of the alkali metals include potassium, sodium, lithium, caesium, rubidium, and then francium. One element, hydrogen, that is usually a member of this group of metals frequently does not exhibit behavior that is comparable to the rest of the alkali metals. For the rest of the alkali metals, they display one of the best instances of group trends in properties among elements on the periodic table.

Radioactive Alkali Metals: An explanation of what the alkali metals are.

Reactivity of Alkali Metals: A brief explanation of the reactivity of alkali metals.

Group of Metals called Alkali: Article on alkali metals features in-depth explanations and diagrams.

The Facts on Alkali Metals: Webpage that covers the properties of alkali metals.

Alkali Metals and their Relative Activity: An outline of the relative activity in alkali metals.

Alkali Metals and Hydrogen: Quick explanation behind the relationship of the alkali metals to hydrogen.

Period Table Group 1A: A discussion on the part of the periodic table that includes the alkali metals.

Alkaline Earth

Alkaline earth metals belong to Group 2 elements of the periodic table and are made up of radium, barium, strontium, calcium, magnesium, and beryllium. The name for this specific group of metals comes from their own oxides that, in turn, provide the basic alkaline solutions. Aside from magnesium and beryllium, the alkaline earth metals possess an identifiable flame color. These flame colors are crimson red for radium, green for Barium, bright red for strontium, and orange for calcium.

Reactivity and Alkaline Earth Metals: An experiment to demonstrate the reactivity of alkaline earth metals.

Group 2A: A lecture on Group 2A of the periodic table, where you find the alkaline earth metals.

Alkaline Earth Metals and their Chemistry: Discussion on the chemical properties of this group of metals.

Place of Alkaline Earth Metals on the Periodic Table: A webpage explaining how to read Alkaline Earth Metals on the periodic table.

About Alkaline Earth Metals: Examination of how these metals form ions.

Chemistry Glossary: A glossary that provides the definition of alkaline earth metals along with other chemistry terms.

Data on the Alkaline Earth Metals: An informative page on the alkaline earth metals.

Lanthanides

Lanthanides are the 15 elements that comprise the atomic numbers 57 to 71 on the periodic table. The series of elements ranges from lanthanum to lutetium. All lanthanide elements are f-block elements, which means they correlate to the 4f electron shell’s filling. Even though the element called lutetium is a d-block element, it is mostly considered a d-block element, too. The group of elements as a whole is called lanthanide because the more light elements in their series are similar, chemically, to lanthanum.

What are the Lanthanide Elements?: Explanation of what lanthanides truly are.

Lanthanides Introduction: A brief and concise explanation of lanthanides to those new to these elements.

Lanthanides and the Periodic Table: Webpage that displays an answered question about the placement of lanthanides on the table.

Lanthanides and Waste Transmutation: Webpage that discusses what occurs to lanthanides during the transmutation of waste.

Controversy and Lanthanides: Article on the questionable placement of lanthanides on the periodic table.

Lanthanides Resource Page: Webpage that talks about the distribution and extraction of lanthanides.

Actinides

Actinides are the 15 chemical elements that feature the numbers 89 to 103, which correspond to actinium to lawrencium. The name of this series of elements comes from the element actinium. While the majority of actinide elements are synthetic elements, uranium and thorium can be found in nature in more than just trace quantities. One property that these elements are famous for is the radioactivity that is found in all of them; plutonium, thorium, and uranium are utilized in nuclear weapons and reactors.

Actinide Health Concerns: Health concerns prompted by the use of actinides are explored.

Actinide and Calcite Co-precipitation: A discussion on the disposal of nuclear waste.

Actinide Studies: An article that talks about the electronic structure studies done on actinides.

Profiles of Actinides: Webpage featuring pictures and descriptions of the actinide metals.

Actinides Explained: Webpage that explains what actinide metals are.

Actinides Walkthrough: An introduction to actinides.

Transition metals

Transition metals are the elements that feature atoms that have an incomplete d sub-shell. Transition metals or elements are unique from other elements by their common properties. One property is that they form a lot of compounds in quite a few states of oxidation. Another property they are known for is their tendency to form a lot of paramagnetic compounds, mainly due to the low reactivity of their d electrons that are unpaired.

The Importance of Transition Metals: Transition metals and their importance are laid out.

Transition Metals Behavior: Succinct paragraph that explains the behaviors of transition metals.

Ionic Compounds and Transition Metals: An exploration of ionic compounds that involve transition metals.

Transition Metal Clusters: A look at transition metal clusters.

Colors in Transition Metal Complexes: An introduction into how color figures into transition metal complexes.

The Basics on Transition Metals: All the basics of transition metals are covered on this webpage.

List of Transition Metals: An authoritative list of transition metals is provided.

Overview: An overview of everything that needs to be known about transition metals.

Metalloids

Metalloids are chemical elements that are best defined by two criteria. They often create amphoteric oxides and behave in the same manner as semiconductors. Silicon, boron, germanium, tellurium, antimony, and arsenic are in general classified as metalloids. Sometimes, the element called polonium is also included in the metalloid classification, but there is still dispute regarding this among the experts.

Metalloids on the Periodic Table: A look at the distribution of metalloids on the periodic table.

Experiment: An experiment involving physical science and metalloids.

Metalloids (Semiconductors): An explanation of where the metalloids sit on the periodic table.

Metalloid Investigation: A science experiment that teaches students to classify and identify metalloids.

Properties of Metalloids: Webpage providing a straightforward definition of a metalloid’s properties.

Classification: Webpage providing a lesson on how to classify elements including metalloids.

Toxic Metalloids: A look at the biomethylation of toxic metalloids. Other Metals Other metals, or post-transition metals, are the group of elements on the periodic table that are situated to the right of the transition elements. Up to this day, what elements ought to be included in this group is hugely disputed. Usually, zinc, gallium, cadmium, indium, tin, mercury, thallium, lead, and bismuth are included as the other metals of the periodic table. With varying consistency, mercury, cadmium, and zinc (the so-called group 12 elements) are both included as well as excluded from lists of these other metals.

Post-transition Metal Assignment: A science lesson that involves post-transitional metals.

Definition of Post-transition Metal: An understandable definition of post-transitional metals is provided.

Profile of Zinc: A profile of this post-transition metal.

Description of Zinc: A description of this integral, other metal.

Cadmium in Kids’ Jewelry: A research article into the role of cadmium in kids’ jewelry.

Metals History: A history of metals includes a mention of mercury.

Exploration of Mercury: A look at the metal includes a comprehensive examination of its make-up.

The Element Mercury: A detailed analysis of the element mercury.

Zirconia Toughened Alumina

Zirconia aluminia (or zirconia toughened alumina), a combination of zirconium oxide and aluminum oxide, is part of a class of composite ceramics called AZ composites. Noted for their mechanical properties, AZ composites are commonly used in structural applications, as cutting tools, and in many medical applications. Additionally, AZ composites feature high strength, fracture toughness, elasticity, hardness, and wear resistance. Zirconia toughened alumina (ZTA), in particular, offers several key properties.

Zirconia Toughened Alumina (ZTA)

Zirconia toughened aluminum typically consists of alumina with a 10 to 20 percent zirconia concentration, which enhances the strength of the alumina. To achieve the increase in the composite’s strength, a process known as stress induced transformation toughening takes place. Stress induced transformation toughening results in uniform internal strain, which causes the zirconia structure to crack, and the zirconia particles to switch phases. Because of this phase switch, the amount of zirconia particles increases and creates stresses within the alumina’s structure. These stresses effectively heal the crack and block further cracking—the added zirconia doubles the composite’s strength and enhances toughness between two and four times.

Properties of ZTA

With increased strength and toughness as a result of stress induced transformation toughenening, ZTA also exhibits other notable properties. ZTA has good thermal traits, allowing the material to withstand high temperature applications without experiencing degradation. Additionally, ZTA has very good mechanical properties, and increased wear resistance when compared with alumina. ZTA also offers high corrosion-resistance.

Applications of ZTA

Because of ZTA’s diverse range of properties, it can be used in an array of applications. In the medical industry, ZTA serves as a ceramic that can be used in joint replacement and rehabilitation, where its wear-resistance helps create high-performance implants. Additionally, ZTA is often used in other load-bearing applications, as its high-strength and corrosion-resistance enable the material to withstand heavy loads without succumbing to degradation.

Cutting tools can also be manufactured from ZTA, which can then be used in metal-cutting applications. In order to produce effective cutting tools, ZTA must be manufactured through sintering and grinding, with the grinding process playing a key role in determining the surface characteristics of the blade.

Other applications of ZTA include pump components, such as seals, brushings and impellers, where the material’s corrosion-resistance is an important attribute. Valve seats and certain engine components can also be manufactured from ZTA, as can labware, industrial crucibles, and refractory tubes. Abrasive applications, such as sandblasting, also employ ZTA.

The History Of Nickel Plating

Plating processes have been used for hundreds of years to help strengthen metal against corrosion and wear as well as to add aesthetic flair to an otherwise dull appearance. Various plating methods employ either electric or chemical methods of dispersing a thin layer of metal coating on a metal substrate. Electric processes use a slight metal current in a chemical bath. As the electricity passes through a wire onto the substrate, the oxidation process disperses metal flakes and salts in an even layer coating. Electroless processes simply employ a chemical reaction to produce similar, stable results.

The Invention of Plating

The actual development of plating began in the early 1800s when electrochemical piles were developed that could pump current through wires. This innovation found little application initially, but in 1837 G. Bird described electrodeposition of nickel chloride or sulphate on platinum. This process resulted in a thin crust of nickel on the platinum substrate, and soon after other European experiments proved nickel chloride, nitrate and nickel ammonium sulphate were also appropriate for nickel plating processes. The nickel ammonium sulphate, or double nickel salts, solution became industry standard for the next seventy years in commercial products.

Dr I. Adams of the United States patented a nickel ammonium sulphate bath in 1869. His main contribution to the process, and one for which he was much chastised by rivals, was that the electrolytic bath should be neutral and “free from the presence of potash, soda, alumina, lime or nitric acid, or from any acid or alkaline reaction.” Dr. Adams engaged in an aggressive marketing campaign for his solution in the United States and Europe, resulting in a near universal acceptance by industrial countries. Experimentation and innovation continued by Adams’s rivals, who attempted to incorporate nickel sulphate, and citric or benzoic acids to the electrolytic bath in an attempt to develop alternate plating processes. Some of these caught on while others garnered small to no followings.

In 1916, Professor O.P. Watts published a formula in the United States for a bath that is still in use with few changes. His basic formula is:

Nickel sulphate, NiSO4 • 7H2O 240g/l

Nickel chloride, NiCl2 • 6H2O 20g/l

Boric acid, H3BO3 20g/l

Temperature and air agitation levels varied in the UK and the USA for quite some time until international standards were developed in the 1930s. These standards included raising the bath’s temperature from the previously used room temperature and introducing air agitation shake up of the bath itself.

The Watts formula has undergone a few changes to introduce new capabilities in nickel plating, such as the change in the composition to produce “bright” nickel plating, which has more luster than a standard nickel plating. Additionally, a chemical composition was developed to provide for electroless nickel plating, which does not require a steady source of power to produce a current and is therefore cheaper. Both electric and electroless nickel plating are widely used processed around the world for metal coating deposition.

Ancient Plating Theories

Plating processes might have been used in ancient times if theories about the "Parthian Batteries” are correct, but more recent and still-current methods were developed and improved upon throughout the 19th century. These changes were the product of experimentations with chemical composition of the baths used to plate as well as new methods for isolating metals and chemicals from one another. Currently, plating processes are so well-refined that they can be performed by large industrial concerns down to the home hobbyist in a garage.

There is some evidence that certain artifacts in ancient Mesopotamia could have represented an electrochemical battery that some historians believe could have been used to electroplate gold onto jewelry and other desirable objects. Modern experiments prove that if the Mesopotamians knew how to properly wire the artifacts, the electrochemical current from a simple lemon could have performed the job. But the theories espousing this view are suspect at best, although not impossible.